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Engineering is the applied science of acquiring and applying knowledge to
design, analysis, and/or construction of works for practical purposes. The
American Engineers' Council for Professional Development, also known as ECPD,
(later ABET ) defines Engineering as: "The creative application of scientific
principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or
manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to
construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to
forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an
intended function, economics of operation and safety to life and property." One
who practices engineering is called an engineer, and those licensed to do so
have formal designations such as Professional Engineer, Chartered Engineer or
Incorporated Engineer. The broad discipline of engineering encompasses a range
of specialised subdisciplines that focus on the issues associated with
developing a specific kind of product, or using a specific type of technology.
Branches of Engineering
Engineering, much like science, is a broad discipline which is often broken down
into several sub-disciplines. These disciplines concern themselves with
differing areas of engineering work and to some extent can be outlined as
follows, howevever this classification is broad at best. Although initially an
engineer will be trained in a specific discipline, throughout an engineer's
career the engineer may become multi-disciplined, having worked in several of
the outlined areas.
* Aerospace Engineering - The design of aircraft, spacecraft and related topics.
* Biomedical Engineering - The application of engineering principles and
techniques to the medical field.
* Chemical Engineering - The conversion of raw materials into usable
commodities.
* Civil Engineering - The design and construction of public and private works,
such as bridges and buildings.
* Computer Engineering - The entire process of designing and coding computers
and computer related devices.
* Electrical Engineering - The design of electrical systems, such as
transformers, as well as electronic goods.
* Environmental Engineering - Environmental Engineers are concerned with
protecting the environment by assessing the impact a project has on the air,
water, soil and noise levels in its vicinity.
* Instrumentation engineering - The design of all electronic instruments.
* Mechanical engineering - The design of physical or mechanical systems, such as
engines, kinematic chains and vibration isolation equipment.
* Manufacturing engineering - The ability to plan the practices of
manufacturing, to research and develop the tool, processes, machines and
equipment, and to integrate the facilities and systems for producing quality
products with optimal expenditure.
* Industrial Engineering - To design systems or make systems more productive and
efficient. There are roughly four main areas of industrial engineering:
* Human Factors, Operations Research, Manufacturing, and Statistics and Quality
* Mining Engineering - The extraction of raw materials from the earth, including
ores, natural gases and crude oils.
* Production Engineering - The design of packaging systems and use of raw
materials.
* Software Engineering - The design and development of software for use in
digital systems
For each of these fields there exists considerable overlap, especially in the
areas of the application of sciences to their disciplines such as physics,
chemistry and mathematics.
Methodology
Enlarge picture
Design of a turbine requires collaboration from engineers from many fields
Engineers borrow from physics and mathematics to find suitable solutions to the
problem at hand. They apply the scientific method in deriving their solutions.
If multiple options exist, engineers weigh different design choices on their
merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. The crucial
and unique task of the engineer is to identify, understand, and interpret the
constraints on a design in order to produce a successful result. It is usually
not enough to build a technically successful product; it must also meet further
requirements. Constraints may include available resources, physical, imaginative
or technical limitations, flexibility for future modifications and additions,
and other factors, such as requirements for cost, safety, marketability,
producibility, and serviceability. By understanding the constraints, engineers
derive specifications for the limits within which a viable object or system may
be produced and operated.
Problem solving
Engineers use their knowledge of science, mathematics, and appropriate
experience to find suitable solutions to a problem. Engineering is considered a
branch of applied mathematics and science. Creating an appropriate mathematical
model of a problem allows them to analyze it (sometimes definitively), and to
test potential solutions. Usually multiple reasonable solutions exist, so
engineers must evaluate the different design choices on their merits and choose
the solution that best meets their requirements. Genrich Altshuller, after
gathering statistics on a large number of patents, suggested that compromises
are at the heart of "low-level" engineering designs, while at a higher level the
best design is one which eliminates the core contradiction causing the problem.
Engineers typically attempt to predict how well their designs will perform to
their specifications prior to full-scale production. They use, among other
things: prototypes, scale models, simulations, destructive tests, nondestructive
tests, and stress tests. Testing ensures that products will perform as expected.
Engineers as professionals take seriously their responsibility to produce
designs that will perform as expected and will not cause unintended harm to the
public at large. Engineers typically include a factor of safety in their designs
to reduce the risk of unexpected failure. However, the greater the safety
factor, the less efficient the design may be.
Computer use
Enlarge picture
A computer simulation of high velocity air flow around the Space Shuttle during
re-entry.
As with all modern scientific and technological endeavors, computers and
software play an increasingly important role. As well as the typical business
application software there are a number of computer aided applications (CAx)
specifically for engineering.
One of the most widely used tools in the profession is computer-aided design
(CAD) software which enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and
schematics of their designs. CAD together with Digital mockup (DMU) and CAE
software such as finite element method analysis allows engineers to create
models of designs that can be analyzed without having to make expensive and
time-consuming physical prototypes. These allow products and components to be
checked for flaws; assess fit and assembly; study ergonomics; and to analyze
static and dynamic characteristics of systems such as stresses, temperatures,
electromagnetic emissions, electrical currents and voltages, digital logic
levels, fluid flows, and kinematics. Access and distribution of all this
information is generally organized with the use of Product Data Management
software.
There are also many tools to support specific engineering tasks such as
Computer-aided manufacture (CAM) software to generate CNC machining
instructions; Manufacturing Process Management software for production
engineering; EDA for printed circuit board (PCB) and circuit schematics for
electronic engineers; MRO applications for maintenance management ; and AEC
software for civil engineering.
In recent years the use of computer software to aid the development of goods has
collectively come to be known as Product Lifecycle Management (PLM).
History
Enlarge picture
An F-15 Eagle Pratt & Whitney F100 turbofan engine designed by aerospace
engineers.
The history of the concept of "engineering" stems from the earliest times when
humans began to make clever inventions, such as the pulley, lever, or wheel,
etc. The exact etymology of the word engineer, however, is a person
occupationally connected with the study, design, and implementation of engines.
The word "engine", derives from the Latin ingenium (c. 1250), meaning "innate
quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention." Hence, an engineer,
essentially, is someone who makes useful or practical inventions.
From another perspective, a now obsolete meaning of engineer, dating from 1325,
is "a constructor of military engines". Engineering was originally divided into
military engineering, which included construction of fortifications as well as
military engines, and civil engineering, non-military construction of such as
bridges.
The first electrical engineer is considered to be William Gilbert, with his 1600
publication of De Magnete, who was the originator of the term "electricity".
The first steam engine was built in 1698 by mechanical engineer Thomas Savery.
With the rise of engineering as a profession in the nineteenth century the term
became more narrowly applied to fields in which mathematics and science were
applied to these ends. Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering
the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering.
The first PhD in engineering (technically, applied science and engineering)
awarded in the United States went to Willard Gibbs at Yale University in 1863;
it was also the second PhD awarded in science in the U.S.
In 1990, with the rise of computer technology, the first search engine was built
by computer engineer Alan Emtage.
Engineering in a social context
Engineering is a subject that ranges from large collaborations to small
individual projects. Almost all engineering projects are beholden to some sort
of financing agency: a company, a set of investors, or a government. The few
types of engineering that are minimally constrained by such issues are pro bono
engineering and open design engineering.
By its very nature engineering is bound up with society and human behavior.
Every product or construction used by modern society will have been influenced
by engineering design. Engineering design is a very powerful tool to make
changes to environment, society and economies, and its application brings with
it a great responsibility, as represented by many of the Engineering
Institutions codes of practice and ethics. Whereas medical ethics is a
well-established field with considerable consensus, engineering ethics is far
less developed, and engineering projects can be subject to considerable
controversy. Just a few examples of this from different engineering disciplines
are the development of nuclear weapons, the Three Gorges Dam, the design and use
of Sports Utility Vehicles and the extraction of oil. There is a growing trend
amongst western engineering companies to enact serious Corporate and Social
Responsibility policies, but many companies do not have these.
Engineering is a key driver of human development. Sub-Saharan Africa in
particular has a very small engineering capacity which results in many African
nations being unable to develop crucial infrastructure without outside aid. The
attainment of many of the Millennium Development Goals requires the achievement
of sufficient engineering capacity to develop infrastructure and sustainable
technological development. All overseas development and relief NGOs make
considerable use of engineers to apply solutions in disaster and development
scenarios. A number of charitable organizations aim to use engineering directly
for the good of mankind:
* Engineers Without Borders
* Engineers Against Poverty
* Registered Engineers for Disaster Relief
* Engineers for a Sustainable World
Cultural presence
Engineering is a well respected profession. For example, in Canada it ranks as
one of the public's most trusted professions.
Sometimes engineering has been seen as a somewhat dry, uninteresting field in
popular culture, and has also been thought to be the domain of nerds. For
example, the cartoon character Dilbert is an engineer. One difficulty in
increasing public awareness of the profession is that average people, in the
typical run of ordinary life, do not ever have any personal dealings with
engineers, even though they benefit from their work every day. By contrast, it
is common to visit a doctor at least once a year, the chartered accountant at
tax time, and, occasionally, even a lawyer.
This has not always been so - most British school children in the 1950s were
brought up with stirring tales of 'the Victorian Engineers', chief amongst whom
were the Brunels, the Stephensons, Telford and their contemporaries.
In science fiction engineers are often portrayed as highly knowledgeable and
respectable individuals who understand the overwhelming future technologies
often portrayed in the genre. The Star Trek characters Montgomery Scott, Geordi
La Forge, Miles O'Brien, B'Elanna Torres, and Charles Tucker are famous
examples.
Occasionally, engineers may be recognized by the "Iron Ring"--a stainless steel
or iron ring worn on the little (fourth) finger of the dominant hand. This
tradition began in 1925 in Canada for the Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer
as a symbol of pride and obligation for the engineering profession. Some years
later in 1972 this practice was adopted by several colleges in the United
States. Members of the US Order of the Engineer accept this ring as a pledge to
uphold the proud history of engineering. A Professional Engineer's name may be
followed by the post-nominal letters PE or P.Eng in North America. In much of
Europe a professional engineer is denoted by the letters IR, while in the UK and
much of the Commonwealth the term Chartered Engineer applies and is denoted by
the letters CEng.
Legislation
In most Western countries, certain engineering tasks, such as the design of
bridges, electric power plants, and chemical plants, must be approved by a
Professional Engineer or a Chartered Engineer or an Incorporated Engineer.
Laws protecting public health and safety mandate that a professional must
provide guidance gained through education and experience. In the United States,
each state tests and licenses Professional Engineers. In much of Europe and the
Commonwealth professional accreditation is provided by Engineering Institutions,
such as the Institution of Civil Engineers from the UK. The engineering
institutions of the UK are some of the oldest in the world, and provide
accreditation to many engineers around the world. In Canada the profession in
each province is governed by its own engineering association. For instance, in
the Province of British Columbia an engineering graduate with 4 or more years of
experience in an engineering-related field will need to be registered by the
Association for Professional Engineers and Geoscientists [(APEGBC)] in order to
become a Professional Engineer and be granted the professional designation of
P.Eng.
The federal US government, however, supervises aviation through the Federal
Aviation Regulations administrated by the Dept. of Transportation, Federal
Aviation Administration. Designated Engineering Representatives approve data for
aircraft design and repairs on behalf of the Federal Aviation Administration.
Even with strict testing and licensure, engineering disasters still occur.
Therefore, the Professional Engineer or Chartered Engineer or Incorporated
Engineer adheres to a strict code of ethics. Each engineering discipline and
professional society maintains a code of ethics, which the members pledge to
uphold.
Refer also to the Washington accord for international accreditation details of
professional engineering degrees.
Relationships with other disciplines
Science
There exists an overlap between the sciences and engineering practice; in
engineering, one applies science. Both areas of endeavor rely on accurate
observation of materials and phenomena. Both use mathematics and classification
criteria to analyze and communicate observations. Scientists are expected to
interpret their observations and to make expert recommendations for practical
action based on those interpretations. Scientists may also have to complete
engineering tasks, such as designing experimental apparatus or building
prototypes. Conversely, in the process of developing technology engineers
sometimes find themselves exploring new phenomena, thus becoming, for the
moment, scientists.
In the book What Engineers Know and How They Know It, Walter Vincenti asserts
that engineering research has a character different from that of scientific
research. First, it often deals with areas in which the basic physics and/or
chemistry are well understood, but the problems themselves are too complex to
solve in an exact manner. Examples are the use of numerical approximations to
the Navier-Stokes equations to describe aerodynamic flow over an aircraft, or
the use of Miner's rule to calculate fatigue damage. Second, engineering
research employs many semi-empirical methods that are foreign to pure scientific
research, one example being the method of parameter variation.
As stated by Fung et al. in the revision to the classic engineering text,
Foundations of Solid Mechanics,
"Engineering is quite different from science. Scientists try to understand
nature. Engineers try to make things that do not exist in nature. Engineers
stress invention. To embody an invention the engineer must put his idea in
concrete terms, and design something that people can use. That something can be
a device, a gadget, a material, a method, a computing program, an innovative
experiment, a new solution to a problem, or an improvement on what is existing.
Since a design has to be concrete, it must have its geometry, dimensions, and
characteristic numbers. Almost all engineers working on new designs find that
they do not have all the needed information. Most often, they are limited by
insufficient scientific knowledge. Thus they study mathematics, physics,
chemistry, biology and mechanics. Often they have to add to the sciences
relevant to their profession. Thus engineering sciences are born."
Medicine and biology
The study of the human body, albeit from different directions and for different
purposes, is an important common link between medicine and some engineering
disciplines. Medicine aims to sustain, enhance and even replace functions of the
human body, if necessary, through the use of technology. Modern medicine can
replace several of the body's functions through the use of artificial organs and
can significantly alter the function of the human body through artificial
devices such as, for example, brain implants and pacemakers. The fields of
Bionics and medical Bionics are dedicated to the study of synthetic implants
pertaining to natural systems. Conversely, some engineering disciplines view the
human body as a biological machine worth studying, and are dedicated to
emulating many of its functions by replacing biology with technology. This has
led to fields such as artificial intelligence, neural networks, fuzzy logic, and
robotics. There are also substantial interdisciplinary interactions between
engineering and medicine.
Both fields provide solutions to real world problems. This often requires moving
forward before phenomena are completely understood in a more rigorous scientific
sense and therefore experimentation and empirical knowledge is an integral part
of both. Medicine, in part, studies the function of the human body. The human
body, as a biological machine, has many functions that can be modeled using
Engineering methods. The heart for example functions much like a pump, the
skeleton is like a linked structure with levers, the brain produces electrical
signals etc. These similarities as well as the increasing importance and
application of Engineering principles in Medicine, led to the development of the
field of biomedical engineering that utilizes concepts developed in both
disciplines.
Newly emerging branches of science, such as Systems biology, are adapting
analytical tools traditionally used for engineering, such as systems modeling
and computational analysis, to the description of biological systems.
Art
There are connections between engineering and art; they are direct in some
fields, for example, architecture, landscape architecture and industrial design
(even to the extent that these disciplines may sometimes be included in a
University's Faculty of Engineering); and indirect in others. The Art Institute
of Chicago, for instance, held an exhibition about the art of NASA's aerospace
design. Robert Maillart's bridge design is perceived by some to have been
deliberately artistic. At the University of South Florida, an engineering
professor, through a grant with the National Science Foundation, has developed a
course that connects art and engineering. Among famous historical figures
Leonardo Da Vinci is a well known Renaissance artist and engineer, and a prime
example of the nexus between art and engineering.
Other fields
In Political science the term engineering has been borrowed for the study of the
subjects of Social engineering and Political engineering, which deal with
forming political and social structures using engineering methodology coupled
with political science principles
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